Poetic Speech

Poetic Speech 1. Comment on the peculiarities of the words and forms marked My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began; So is it now I am a man: So be it when I shall grow old, Or let me die.'QN. Wordsworth)

2. Comment on the marked words; find their more up-to-date synonyms (from J. Byron's poem "Child Harold", Canto the first) Whilome in Albion's isle there dwelt a youth, Who ne in virtue's ways did take delight; But spent his days in riot most uncouth, And vex'd with mirth the drowsy ear of Night. Ah, me! In sooth he was a shameless wight, Sore given to revel and ungodly glee; Few earthly things found favour in his sight Save concubines and carnal companie, And flaunting wassailers of high and low degree. Childe Harold was he hight: — but whence his name And lineage long, it suits me not to say; Suffice it, that perchance they were of fame, And had been glorious in another day... Adieu, adieu/ My native shore Fades o'er the waters blue; The night-winds sigh, the breakers roar, And shrieks the wild sea—mew. Yon sun that sets upon the sea We follow in his flight; Farewell awhile to him and thee, My native Land — Good night!

3. Find dialectal and archaic elements in R. Burns' poem: Should auld acquaintance be forgot. And never brought to mind? Should auld acquaintance be forgot, And days о' lang syne ? For auld lang syne, my dears, For auld lang syne. We 'II tak a cup о 'kindness yet, For auld lang syne... And here's a hand, my trusty fiere, And gie 's a hand о' thine; And we 'II tak a right guid willie-waught For auld lang syne.

Miscellany: Point Out the Stylistic Devices Used

Miscellany: Point Out the Stylistic Devices Used 1) "You have heard of Jefferson Brick I see, Sir, " — quoth the Co/one/ with a smile. "England has heard of Jefferson Brick. Europe has heard of Jefferson Brick ". (Dickens) 2) but who would scorn the month of June, Because December, with his breath so hoary, Must come? (Byron)

3) He ordered a bottle of the worst possible port wine, at the highest possible price. (Dickens) 4) Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator. (Steinbeck) 5) And yet will you tell me that I oughtn 't to go into society? I, who shower money upon it in this way ? I, who might be almost said to —to — to harness myself to a watering cart full of money, and go about, saturating society, every day of my life? (Dickens) 6) He already had a car — a large car — an expensive car. In that car and no other he proposed to continue his journey back to town. (Christie) 7) Mother Nature always blushes before disrobing. (Y. Esar) 8) It's only an adopted child. One I have told her of. One I'm going to give the name to. (Dickens)

9) Richard said that he would work his fingers to the bone for Ada, and Ada said that she would work her fingers to the bone for Richard. (Dickens) 10) The mechanics were underpaid, and underfed, and overworked. (J. Aldridge) 11) Men 'stalk was better than women's. Never food, never babies, never sickness, but people, what happened, the reason. Not the state of the house, but the state of the Army... Not what spoilt the washing, but who spilled the beans. (D. du Maurier) 12) Swan had taught him much. The great kindly Swede had taken him under his wing. (E. Ferber)

Structural Stylistic Devices

Structural Stylistic Devices 1. State the type of inversion: What the action of the play would have been like if Laertes had not had the occasion to revenge the death of his father, we cannot tell. (Literary criticism) Had this happened before supper, George would have expressed wishes and desires concerning Harris's fate in this world and the next that would have made a thoughtful man shudder. (Jerome) Calm and quiet below me in the sun and shade lay the old house. (Dickens) 2. What structural device is used below? A poor boy... No father, no mother, no any one. (Dickens) 3. Comment on the kind of repetition used: One may see by their footprints that they have not walked arm in arm; that they have not walked in a straight track, and that they have walked in a moody humour. (Dickens) / looked at the gun, and the gun looked at me. (R. Chandler) 4. Point out the devices of climax and anticlimax: Of course it's important. Incredibly, urgently, desperately important. (D. Cusack) // was a mistake ...a blunder... lunacy ... (W. Deeping) He was numbed. He wanted to weep, to vomit, to die, to sink away. (A. Bennet) They were absolutely quiet; eating no apples, cutting no names, inflicting no pinches, and making no grimaces, for full two minutes afterwards. (Dickens) 5. Explain the meaning of the periphrasis She was still fat; the destroyer of her figure sat at the head of the table. (A. Bennet) The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting in Africa. (I. Shaw) 6. What device is created by the use of the marked words? Don't use big words. They mean so little. (Wilde) 7. What device is represented by the marked part of the sentence and what is the implication here? "But, John, you know I 'm not going to a doctor. I 've told you. " "You are going — or else... "(P. Qucntin)

8. What device is used in the marked parts? His nervousness about it irritated him: she had no business to make him feel like that. (Galsworthy) Angela looked at him with swimming eyes. He was really different from anything she had ever known, young, artistic, imaginative, ambitious... What a wonderful thing! (Dickens) 9. What ways of connection are used in the extracts below? And they wore their best and more colourful clothes. Red shirts and green shirts and yellow shirts and pink shirts. (P. Abrahams) The pulsating motion at Malay Camp at night was everywhere. People sang. People cried. People fought. People loved. People hated. (P. Abrahams)

10. Name the device used below "The day on which I had to take the happiest and best step of my life — the day on which I shall be a man more exulting and more enviable than any other man in the world — the day on which I give Bleak House its little mistress — shall be next month, then ", said my guardian. (Dickens) VI. Comment on the Phonetic Devices Used Below 'Sh-sh', shesaid. 'But I'm whispering!' This continual shushing annoyed him. (A. Huxley) The moan of doves in immemorial elms, And murmuring of innumerable bees. (Tennison)

Figures of Speech

IV. Figures of Speech 1. State which of the comparative structures represent metaphors and similes He has a tongue like a sward and a pen like a dagger. (H. Caine)

You talk exactly like my father!

The laugh in her eyes died out... (M. Spillane) The grin made his large teeth resemble a dazzling miniature piano keyboard in the green light. (J. Jones) // was his habit not to jump or leap at anything in life but to crawl at everything. (Dickens)

2. Distinguish between metonymy and metaphor He earns his living by his pen. (S. Maugham) / ... came to the place where the Stars and Stripes stood shoulder to shoulder with the Union Jack. (Steinbeck) Money burns a hole in my pocket. (T. Capote) 3. State which of the attributes represent epithets ... whispered the spinster aunt with true spinster-aunt-like envy. (Dickens) A lock of hair fell over her eye and she pushed it back with a tired, end-of-the-dayjesture. (J. Braine) The money she had accepted was two soft, green, handsome ten-dollar bills. (Dreiser) 4. Comment on the play upon words: His arm about her, he led her in and bawled, 'Ladies and worser halves, the bride!' (S. Lewis) Then there were the twin boys, whom the family called "Stars and Stripes ", as they were whipped regularly. (O. Wilde) There comes a period in every man's life, but she's just a semicolon in his. (S. Evans) (period in American English means " a full stop") Did you hit a woman with a child? — No, sir, I hit her with a brick. (Th. Smith) lsn 't it discouraging when it takes two days to fly a letter from coast to coast? I get so mad I mark the envelopes 'Air-Snail". (example from the work) 5. Point out litotes and hyperbole She was not without realization already that this thing was impossible, so far as she was concerned. (Dreiser)

Joe Clegg also looked surprised and possibly not too pleased. (Christie) Her family is one aunt about a thousand years old. (Fitzgerald) 6. Comment on the peculiarities of antonomasia Every Caesar has his Brutus. (O. Henry) There are three doctors in an illness like yours... Dr. Rest, Dr. Diet and Dr. Fresh air. (D. Cusack) 7. Explain the meaning of these euphemisms 7 expect you 'd like a wash,' Mrs. Thompson said. 'The bathroom 's to the right and the usual offices next to it'. (J. Braine) Why, in the name of all the infernal powers, Mrs. Merdle ...? (Dickens) 8. What allusion is made in the extract? "Christ, it's so funny! Madame Bovary at Columbia Extension School!" (Salinger) 9. What device is represented by the marked words? Break, break, break On the cold gray stones, О Sea! (A. Tennison) 10. Point out how irony is created below: To look at Montmorency, you would imagine that he was an angel sent upon the earth. At first I never thought he would survive. I used to sit down and look at him as he sat on the rug and looked up at me, and think: "Oh, that dog will never live. He will be taken to the bright skies in a chariot, that's what will happen to him ". But when I had paid for about a dozen chickens that he had killed... then I began to think that maybe they would let him remain on earth a bit longer. (Jerome)

Formal Styles

III. Formal Styles 1. Analyse the peculiarities of the style of scientific texts; paraphrase the marked expressions by more neutral ones a) The degree of liberty possessed by the citizens of a state has become the key standard by which liberal democracies are compared with other forms of government.. However, there is much less consensus on the meaning of liberty.

In political thought liberty is largely synonymous with freedom. But it is as well to recall that liberty or freedom have not always been valued in Western or other forms of political thought. Indeed religious and political authoritarians, and many conservatives and traditionalists, equate liberty with licence, the absence of control, moral chaos. Moreover, many political philosophers, from Plato to Hobbes, have argued that human beings should sacrifice their freedom to ensure order or stability, in the form of strong and/or enlightened government. Many political theorists make a distinction between positive liberty ('freedom to do', or self-mastery') and negative liberty ('freedom from' or 'not being obstructed') although others argue that the distinction is not logically sustainable, that it just confuses matters. The concept of liberty, whether positive or negative, or both, evidently means 'not being controlled' or 'not being obstructed'. The most notable exponents of positive liberty were Rousseau and Kant. They argued that genuine freedom is possessed only by individuals who are autonomous agents — that is, by those whose power of reason is free from manipulation by others, and are capable of exercising self-determination in their moral and political choices. We are free only when we act rightly, and vice versa: we are free when our 'real self is in charge. This thesis can, of course, become a means for suggesting that people are not free even when they claim to be. The idea of negative liberty, by contrast, is derived from the doctrine of natural rights which claims that individuals have certain inalienable rights which should not be transgressed by any individual, group or government. Such rights are 'liberties', that is, rights to be free from control, and are most vigorously supported in the doctrine of libertarianism. Negative liberty exists where citizens are free to behave in any way which does not harm another citizen or contravene specific laws. Negative liberty is often tested in societies where governments or pressure groups attempt to define what constitutes harm to others: thus the private sexual activities of consenting adults would appear to be harmful to neither the practitioners nor the general public, yet many states prohibit by law certain types..

b) Such innovations will involve changes to the diet of the whole populations, including a sharp reduction in consumption of intensively- reared cattle. An international agreement was reached at the J 992 Earth Summit, although the policies agreed will only reduce the rate of increase of greenhouse gases. This, coupled with a fear that American voters regard their right to drive large cars as on a par with the constitutional right to bear arms, made the administration of President Bush very obstructive in international negotiations. Given the economic and political power of the USA, and their consumption of energy, this stance has reduced other countries' readiness to respond. Finally, it is worth noting that any suggestion that global warming threatens life on Earth is highly exaggerated. The changes in atmospheric composition are significant in relation to changes in the last few million years, but are neglectable compared with the changes brought about by life. 2. Analyse the peculiarities of publicist style in the following extract from the First Inaugural speech by Thomas Jefferson; paraphrase the bookish expressions by more neutral ones: Friends and Fellow Citizens ... During the contest of opinion through which we have passed, the animation of discussion and of exertions has sometimes worn an aspect which might impose on strangers unused to think freely and to speak and to write what they think; but this being now decided by the voice of the nation, announced according to the rules of the constitution, all will, of course, arrange themselves under the will of the law, and unite in common efforts for the common good. All, too, will bear in mind this sacred principle, that though the will of the majority is in all cases to prevail, that will, to be rightful, must be reasonable; that the minority possess their equal rights, which equal laws must protect, and to violate which would be oppression. Let us, then, fellow citizens, unite with one heart and one mind. Let us restore to social intercourse that harmony and affection without which liberty and even life itself are but dreary things. And let us reflect that having banished from our land that religious intolerance under which mankind so long bled and suffered, we have yet gained little if we countenance a political intolerance as despotic, as wicked, and capable of as bitter and bloody persecutions. During the throes and convulsions of the ancient world, during the agonizing spasms of infuriated man, seeking through blood and slaughter his long-lost liberty, it was not wonderful that the agitation of the billows should reach even this distant and peaceful shore; that this should be more felt and feared by some and less by others; that this should divide opinions as to measures of safety. But every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. We have called by different names brethren of the same principle. We are all republicans — we are all federalists. If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve this Union or to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it. 1 know, indeed, that some honest men fear that a republican government cannot be strong; that this government is not strong enough. But would the honest patriot, in the full tide of successful experiment, abandon a government which has so far kept us free and firm, on the theoretic and visionary fear that this government, the world's best hope, may by possibility want energy to preserve itself? I trust not. I believe this, on the contrary, the strongest government on earth. I believe it is the only one where every man, at the call of the laws, would fly to the standard of the law, and would meet invasions of the public order as his own personal concern. Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the government of himself. Can he, then, be trusted with the government of others? Or have we found angels in the forms of kings to govern him? Let history answer this question.

Some Practical Assignments for Stylistic Analysis

Some Practical Assignments for Stylistic Analysis I. Stylistic Connotations in Vocabulary Point out stylistic differences within the groups of synonyms: face — visage — mug — deadpan nose — snout — beak — nasal cavity / think — / gather — I presume — I take it — / guess — methinks Boy — youth — lad — young male person — youngster — teenager lass — girl — maiden — wench — young female person nonsense — absurdity — rot — trash legs — pins — lower extremities Silence, please.'— Stop talking.'— Shut your trap! Wait! - Hold on! - Stand by! You are — thou art breathe in — inhale — gasp friend — comrade — pal — buddy — acquaintance Hurry up! — Move on! — Hasten your step!

II. Colloquial Vocabulary Paraphrase so as to show the different uses of the verb 'to do': 1) Have you done your homework? 2) I have to do a sum. 3) Will you please do the room? 4) Who does the cooking in your family? 5) Go and do your teeth! 6) I like the way you do your hair. 7) They do fish very well in this restaurant. 8) What subjects do you do at your University? 9) I did some music in my childhood. 10) This car can do 80 miles an hour. 11) What do you do for a living? 12) You did right to tell me about it. 13) That won't do. 14) Will this sum do for you? 15) It did me good. 16) He is doing well at school. 17) How are you doing? 18) He was up and doing at five in the morning. 19) What is doing here? 20) If you say it again, I'll do you! 21) Can we do Oxford in three days? 22) He does Ronald Reagan very well.

THE USE OF RHYTHM AND RHYME IN VERSIFICATION

THE USE OF RHYTHM AND RHYME IN VERSIFICATION Rhythm in poetic speech is produced by regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. Why do you cry, Willie ? f'uu|'uu) Why do you cry? ('uu|') Why, Willie, why, Willie, ('uu|'uu) Why, Willie, Why? ('uu|') For a purely syllabic system of versification (e.g. in French poetry), the important feature is the same number of syllables in different lines, whether stressed or unstressed. For a purely-tonic system (as in Anglo-Saxon poetry of old times) the important feature is the number of stressed syllables (tonic= 'stressed'). For the syllabic -tonic system of versification, which is typical of modern English (and Russian) poetry, the important feature is the same number of stressed and unstressed syllables. A division of the poetic line from stress to stress, which contains one stressed syllable and one or two unstressed syllables, is called a Foot. The foot is the main unit of rhythm in poetic speech. According to the correlation of stressed and unstressed syllables within the foot, we distinguish the following 5 types of feet: 1) trochee, or a trochaic foot, with two syllables, of which the first is stressed and the second unstressed: Peter, Peter, pumpkin-eater,Had a wife and couldn 't keep her See also the Russian trochaic foot. 2) iambus, or an iambic foot, with two syllables, of which the first is unstressed, the second stressed: And then my love and I shall pace, (u ' I u ' lu' lu') My jet black hair in pearly braids. (Coleridge) 3) dactyl, or a dactylic foot: three syllables, the first stressed, the other two unstressed: Why do you cry, Willie? ('uul'uu) 4) amphibrach, or an amphibrachic foot: three syllables with the stress on the second: A diller, a dollar, a ten о 'clock scholar... (и' и I u' u | u' и I и ' u) 5) anapaest: three syllables, stress on the third: Said the flee, 'Let us fly', (uu'luu'j Said the fly, 'Let us flee', So they flew through a flaw in the flue. The type of foot and the number of feet in the line determine the Metre of the verse. Here we distinguish: iambic trimetre: three iambic feet in a line: Who sets an apple tree (u ' I u ' lu ') May live to see its end, Who sets a pear tree May set it for a friend. iambic tetrametre: four iambic feet in a line: And then my love and 1 shall pace, (u ' lu' I u ' lu') My jet black hair in pearly braids. (Coleridge) iambic pentametre Her lovely looks a sprightly mind disclose (u ' I и ' 1 и ' lu' lu') Quick as her eyes and as unfixed as those. (A. Pope) trochaic trimeter Ring -a — ring of roses, ( ' u I ' u I ' u~) Pocket full of posies trochaic tetrametre Peter, Peter, pumpkin-eater ( ' u I ' u I ' u I ' u) amphibrachic tetrameter A diller, a dollar, a ten о 'clock scholar A verse with four or more feet in a line usually has a caesura, i.e. a pause in the middle of the line: Praised be the Art \\ whose subtle power could stay Yon cloud, and fix it \\ in that glorious shape; Nor would permit || the thin smoke to escape, Nor those bright sunbeams \\ to forsake the day. (W. Wordsworth) English versification is often characterized by certain Irregularities in the metre, e.g. a combination of one-syllable and two syllable feet Pease porridge hot ( ' I ' u 1 ' 1) Pease porridge cold, Pease porrjdge in the pot Nine days old. (I'll)or a combination of one-syllable, two-syllable and three-syllable feet Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. ('ul'ul'uul') Humpty Dumpty had a great fall, ('ul'ul'uul'l) All the King s horses and all the King's men ( ' u u I " u u I ' uul ') Couldn 'tput Humpty Dumpty together again. (' ~ I' — I' ~~\'~~\') Another kind of irregularity is represented by the so called Pyrric foot, in which the rhythm is broken due to the use of unstressed words in the place of the expected stressed syllables, or vice versa, as in Can death be sleep, when life is but a dream. (John Keats) (u'|u'|u'|uuu') or as in the second line of the extract from A. Pope below: Her lovely looks a sprightly mind disclose (u ' I u ' I u ' lu' lu') Quick as her eyes and as unfixed as those. (A. Pope) ( ' | u u ' |u u u " |u ') Rhyme is created by the repetition of the same sounds in the last stressed syllable of two (or more) lines in a stanza. By the type of the stressed syllable we distinguish the male rhyme, when the stress falls on the last syllable in the rhymed lines, and the female rhyme, when it falls on the last but one syllable: When the lamp is shattered (female rhyme) The light in the dust lies dead; (male rhyme) When the cloud is scattered, (female) The rainbow's glory is shed, (male) (P.B. Shelley) See also the alternation of male and female rhymes in the Russian verse in Pushkin's rhymed novel. There may be paired rhymes. when the rhyming pattern is aabb: The seed ye sow, another reaps; (a) The wealth ye find, another keeps; (a) The robes ye weave, another wears; (b) The arms ye forge, another bears, (b) (Shelley) or alternate rhymes, with the pattern abab: A slumber did my spirit seal; (a) I had no human fears: (b) She seemed a thing that could not feel (a) The touch of earthly years, (b) (W. Wordsworth) or enclosing rhymes , with the pattern abba: Much have I travel!'d in the realms of gold, (a) And many goodly states and kingdoms seen; (b) Round many western islands have I been (b) Which bards in fealty (= loyalty) to Apollo hold, (a) (J. Keats) There may also be more complicated variations of these patterns: Rough wind, that meanest loud (a) Grief too sad for song; (b) Wild wind, when sullen cloud (a) Knells all the night long; (b) Sad storm, whose tears are vain, (c) Bare woods, whose branches stain, (c) Deep caves and dreary main, — (c) Wail for the world's wrong/ (b) (Shelley) Note also the possibility of the so called eye-rhyme, when the elements rhymed are similar only in spelling, but not in pronunciation: Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store ? Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find Thee sitting careless on a granary floor, Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind. (J. Keats) For us, even banquets fond regret supply In the red cup that crowns our memory. (Byron)

Types of Stanza The most common stanza, one consisting of four lines, is called a quatrain; the more seldom one, consisting of two, is called a couplet. There is also a ballad stanza, typical of poetic folklore, especially that of the 14th—15th centuries. A ballad is a poem with a plot, which tells some story. The ballad stanza usually has four lines, of which the first and third lines contain four feet, while the second and fourth — three or two. The first word that Sir Patrick read, (4 feet) Sae loud, loud laughed he; (3) The neist word that Sir Patrick read, (4) The tear blinded his ее. (3) This type of stanza is also found in later poetry: The fairest one shall be my love's, (4 feet) The fairest castle of the nine! (3) Wait only till the stars peep out, (4) The fairest shall be thine. (3) (Coleridge) In R. Kipling's ballad cited below, the quatrains are combined into couplets, within which, however, is preserved the alternation of four-foot and three-foot metres: Oh, East is East, and West is West, (4) and never the twain shall meet (3) Till Earth and Sky stand presently (4) at God's great Judgement Seat (3). A specific type of stanza is used in a sonnet. There we usually find twelve lines (three quatrains, i.e. three stanzas with four lines), followed by two final lines (a couplet), which contain a kind of summary of the whole verse: O, lest the world should ask you to recite What merit lived in me, that you should love, After my death, dear love, forget me quite, For you in me can nothing worthy prove; Unless you would devise some virtuous lie, To do more for me than mine own desert, And hang more praise upon deceased I Than niggard truth would willingly impart: O, lest your true love may seem false in this, That you for love speak well of me untrue, My name be buried where my body is, And live no more to shame nor me nor you. For I am ashamed by that which I bring forth, And so should you, to love things nothing worth.

(Shakespeare, Sonnet No. 72) There may also be blank verse, in whic! :here is no rhyming, but the rhythm and metre are to some extent preserved; such is, for instance, the verse of Shakespeare's tragedies:

To be or not to be, — that is the question: — Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them ? — To die, — to sleep, — No more; and by a sleep to say we end The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to, — 'tis a consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die, — to sleep; — To sleep! Perchance to dream: — ay, there's the rub; For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, Wfien we have shuffled off this mortal coil... (Hamlet)

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia This term denotes sound imitation, i.e. the use of words which denote some phenomenon by imitating its real sounding.

It may be imitation of the sounds produced by animals: buzz (sounds of bees); hiss (snakes); bow-wow (dogs); mew/miaow and purr (cats); hoink (pigs); baa-baa (sheep); cackle (chickens); quack (ducks); cuckoo; caw (crows); moo (cows). It may also be imitation of other natural noises: bubble; rustle; splash ;/7о/? ; whistle ; giggle, chuckle; roar; tinkle ; ding-dong, jingle, click, tick, tick-tuck; bang, slap, rap, tap, etc.

Words built on the basis of onomatopoeia make speech especially expressive when used in their figurative meanings: Cars were whizzing past (=moving very fast); The pot was bubbling on the fire (= boiling and making this sound); The crowd buzzed with excitement (=» made a noise like that); I'll just give him a buzz (= phone call). Onomatopoeia may also be used in poetry: We 're foot — slog — slog — slog — slogging over Africa — Foot —foot —foot —foot — slogging over Africa. (Boots — boots — boots — boots — moving up and down again!) (Kipling)

PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND DEVICES

PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND DEVICES Alliteration , Assonance Alliteration is a device based on repetition of the same or similar sounds at close distance, which makes speech more expressive. It is frequently used in idioms: blind as a bat; tit for tat ( = an eye for an eye); tit-bit); (It is) neck or nothing; bag and baggage; last but not least; waste not, want not; as good as gold; as green as grass; willy-nilly (volence-nolence); hurly-burly (= noise); to shilly-shally/to dilly-dally (= to waste time without taking action). Note also the use of alliteration in poetry:

A fly and a flea in the flue were imprisoned. Said the fly, 'Let us flee', Said the flea, 'Let us fly', So they flew through a flaw in the flue We wonder whether the weather Will weather the wether, Or whether the weather the wether will kill.

love your hills and I love your dales, And I love your flocks a-bleating (Keats) (the sound [1] repeated) O, my love is like a red, red rose, That's newly sprung in June. O, my love is like the melodie, That's sweetly played in tune. (R. Burns) ((r, 1| repeated) Ye whose hearts are fresh and simple, Who have faith in God and Nature, Who believe, that in all ages Every human heart is human. (Longfellow) (fh| repeated) Darkness there, and nothing more. Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing,

Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before. (Edgar Рое) (|d| repeated) A variant of alliteration is assonance, i.e. repetition of the same or similar vowels only, as in the phrase wear and tear (My shoes show signs of wear and tear, the wear and tear of city life). This device is sometimes found in poetic speech; see the repetition of the vowel [e] in the line Tenderly bury the fair young dead. (M. La Costa) or the repetition of the diphthong [ei] in the lines Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden, I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore — Clasp a rare and radiant maiden, whom the angels name Lenor?(E. Рое) The term "assonance" is also used to denote an imperfect rhyme), when only vowels are rhymed: number — blunder, same — cane.

A Break in the Narration (Aposiopesis) + Represented Speech

A Break in the Narration (Aposiopesis) This device consists in a sudden stop in the middle of a sentence when the continuation is quite clear: 'Don't you do this, or... '(a threat); 'These are certainly good intentions, but...' (the continuation is clear from the well-known proverb that good intentions pave the way to Hell); Keith: My God! If the police come —find me here — (Galsworthy) Represented Speech

This is the case when the speech of a character in the work of fiction is represented without quotation marks, as if it were the author's speech: To horse! To horse! He quits, for ever quits A scene of peace, though soothing to his soul. (Byron) Old Jolion was on the alert at once. Wasn 't the "man of property "going to live in his new house, then ? (Galsworthy) Note that although represented speech resembles direct speech, it still preserves some features of indirect (reported) speech, such as the phenomenon of Sequence of Tenses, which is observed in the last example.

Antithesis & Polysyndeton & Suspense

Polysyndeton This is a device opposite to asyndeton: a repeated use of the same connectors (conjunctions, prepositions) before several parts of the sentence, which increases the emotional impact of the text: Should you ask me, whence these stories? Whence these legends and traditions,

With the odours of the forest, With the dew, and damp of meadows. With the curling smoke of wigwams, With the rushing of great rivers, With their frequent repetitions... (Longfellow) Antithesis This denotes a structure that stresses a sharp contrast in meaning between the parts within one sentence: Art is long, life is short; One man's meat is another man's poison; Some people are wise, some otherwise. (B. Shaw) As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honour him; but as he was ambitious, I slew him. There's tears for his love; joy for his fortune; honour for his valour, and death for his ambition. (Shakespeare) Youth is full ofpleasance, Age is full of care; Youth like summer morn, Age like winter weather (ib.) Suspense

This is a compositional device by which the less important part of the message is in some way separated from the main part, and the latter is given only at the end of the sentence, so that the reader is kept in suspense. 'Mankind', says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw'. (Ch. Lamb)

Ellipsis & Asyndeton

Ellipsis As in colloquial speech, this device consists in omission of some parts of the sentence that are easily understood from the context or situation. But, while in colloquial style this omission simply makes the speech more compact (Where is he?— In the garden), in literary descriptions it may give the construction an additional expressive or emotional colouring. Note, for example, the solemn tone of the extracts below with the predicate omitted: And on that cheek, and о 'er that brow, So soft, so calm, yet eloquent, The smiles that win, the tints that glow, But tell of days in goodness spent, A mind at peace with all below, A heart whose love is innocent!(Byron) Youth is full ofpleasance, Age is full of care; Youth like summer morn, Age like winter weather. (Shakespeare) The sea is but another sky, The sky a sea as well.... (Longfellow)

Asyndeton This is a deliberate omission of conjunctions or other connectors between parts of the sentence. It may be used in the description of a group of events connected in time: taking place simultaneously or in succession; in this case the absence of a conjunction may correspond to the meaning of the conjunction 'and': There was peace among the nations; Unmolested roved the hunters, Built the birch-canoe for sailing, Caught the fish in lake and river, Shot the deer and trapped the beaver; Unmolested worked the women, Made their sugar from the maple, Gathered wild rice in the meadows, Dressed the skins of deer and beaver. (Longfellow) Asyndeton may also express other logical connections between parts, thus corresponding to various connectors: 'There's no use in talking to him, he's perfectly idiotic!'said Alice desperately. (L. Carroll) (reason: " because") In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms: our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injuries. (Thomas Jefferson) (contradiction: "but") Youth is full ofpleasance, Age is full of care; Youth like summer morn, Age like winter weather. (Shakespeare) (contrast: " whereas") Should a Frenchman or Englishman travel my route, their stored pictures of it would be different from mine. (Steinbeck) (condition: "If)

Stylistic Inversion

Stylistic Inversion By inversion is meant an unusual order of words chosen for emphasis greater expressiveness. The notion of stylistic inversion is broader than the notion of inversion in grammar, where it generally relates only to the position of subject and predicate. Thus, in stylistics it may include the postposition of an adjective in an attributive phrase:

Adieu, adieu! My native shore Fades о 'er the waters blue. (Byron)

A passionate ballad gallant and gay.... (A. Tennyson) Little boy blue, Come blow your horn (Nursery rhyme) It may also refer to a change in the standard position of all other members of the sentence (Subject — Predicate — Object). Thus, in poetic language secondary members (object, adverbial modifier) may stand before the main members: Yon sun that sets upon the sea We follow in his flight. (Byron) The sea is but another sky, The sky a sea as well, And which is earth and which is heaven, The eye can scarcely tell! (Longfellow) At your feet /fall. (Dryden) As for the position of the predicate before subject, we may distinguish cases of 1) full inversion: The cloud-like rocks, the rock-like clouds Dissolved in glory float, And midway of the radiant flood, Hangs silently the boat. (Longfellow) On goes the river And out past the mill. (Stevenson)

On these roads from the manufacturing centres there moved many mobile homes pulled by trucks. (Steinbeck): Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. (Malhew) 2) cases of partial inversion, usually when an adverbial modifier, object or a predicative begins the sentence and only part of the predicate comes before the subject: Never can true reconcilement grow where wounds of deadly hate have pierced so deep. (Milton); How little had I realized that, for me, life was only then beginning. (Christie); Many sweet little appeals did Miss Sharp make to him about the dishes at dinner. (Thackeray); Terribly cold it certainly was. (Wilde)

Chiasmus

Chiasmus This term denotes repetition of the same structure but with the opposite order of elements (a reversed version of syntactic parallelism): Down dropped the breeze, The sails dropped down. (Coleridge) In the days of old men made the manners; Manners now make men. (Byron)

The с loud-like rocks, the rock-like clouds Dissolved in glory float. (Longfellow) The sea is but another sky, The sky a sea as well (ibid) Climax (gradation, градация) and Anticlimax Climax is repetition (lexical or syntactic) of elements of the sentence, which is combined with gradual increase in the degree of some quality or in quantity, or in the emotional colouring of the sentence: A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick's face: the smile extended into a laugh: the laugh into a roar, and the roar became general. (Dickens) Doolittle. I've no hold on her. I got to be agreeable to her. 1 got to give her presents. I got to buy her clothes... I'm a slave to that woman. (Shaw) He was pleased when the child began to adventure across floors on hand and knees; he was gratified, when she managed the trick of balancing herself on two legs; he was delighted when she first said 'ta-ta; and he was rejoiced when she recognised him and smiled at him. (Paton) They looked at hundreds of houses; they climbed thousands of stairs; they inspected innumerable kitchens. (Maugham) The opposite device is called anticlimax, in which case the final element is obviously weaker in degree, or lower in status than the previous; it usually creates a humorous effect: Music makes one feel so romantic — at least it gets on one's nerves, which is the same thing nowadays. (Wilde)

People that have tried it tell me that a clean conscience makes you very happy and contented. But a full stomach does the thing just as well. (Jerome) Doolittle: I'm a thinking man and game for politics or religion or social reform, same as all the other amusements. (Shaw) The autocrat of Russia possesses more power than any other man on earth, but he cannot stop a sneeze. (M. Twain) This war-like speech, received with many a cheer. Had filled them with desire of fame, and beer. (Byron)

STYLISTIC DEVICES MAKING USE OF THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE UNITS

STYLISTIC DEVICES MAKING USE OF THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE UNITS Repetition Lexical repetition is often used to increase the degree of emotion:

'Oh, No, John, No, John, No, John, No!'((тот a folk song) And like a rat without a tail, Til do, I'll do, I'll do. (Shakespeare) Alone, alone, all, all alone, Alone on a wide, wide sea. (Coleridge) The repetition of the same elements at the beginning of several sentences is called anaphora: Should auld acquaintance be forgot And never brought to mind? Should auld acquaintance be forgot And days of auld lang syne ? (Burns)

The repetition of the same elements at the end of several sentences is called epiphora: / am exactly the man to be placed in a superior position in such a case as that. lam above the rest of mankind, in such a case as that. I can act with philosophy in such a case as that. (Dickens) The term Syntactic repetition refers to repetition of syntactic elements or constructions. This may include syntactic tautology, such as, for example, the repetition of the subject of a sentence, which is typical of English folklore:

Little Miss Muffet She sar on a tuffet. (Nursery rhyme) and also of later stylisations of the ballad character: Ellen Adair she loved me well, Against her father's and mother's will. (Tennison) The skipper he blew a whiff from his pipe And a scornful laugh laughed he. (Longfellow) Syntactic tautology may be used in literary works to represent the speech of a person of little education: Well, Judge Thatcher, he took it. ...(M. Twain) Repetition of the subject may also be combined with giving it some more specific additional information: She has developed power, this woman — this — wife of his! (Galsworthy)

Oh, it's a fine life, the life of the gutter. (Shaw) A special variant of syntactic repetition is syntactic parallelism, which means repetition of similar syntactic constructions in the text in order to strengthen the emotional impact or expressiveness of the description: The seeds ye sow — another reaps, The robes ye weave — another wears, The arms ye forge — another bears. (Shelley) Few of them will return to their countries; they will not embrace our holy religion; they will not adopt our manners. (B. Franklin) There were real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes. (Dickens)

Rhetorical Questions

Rhetorical Questions Having the form of an interrogative sentence, a rhetorical question contains not a question but a covert statement of the opposite: Who does not know Shakespeare? (the implication is "everybody knows "); Is there not blood enough ... that more must be poured forth ? (Byron) (= there certainly is enough blood). This king, Shakespeare, does not he shine over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest, indestructible? (Carlyle) (= he certainly does).

The most common structural type of rhetorical question is a negative-interrogative sentence, as in the examples above. But it may also be without an open negation: Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots? (a phrase from "The Old Testament") (the implication is that they cannot); For who has sight so swift and strong, That it can follow the flight of a song ? (Longfellow) (= nobody has). What business is it of yours ?(Shaw) (= it is none of your business).

Since the implied statement is opposite to what is openly asked, a rhetorical question may contain irony: Since when are you interested in such things? (= I doubt that you are really interested in them); / never see him doing any work there... Why can't he work? What use is he there?.. (Jerome) (= he certainly ought to work, he is no use here).

Allusion & Irony

Allusion This is indirect reference to (a hint at) some historical or literary fact (or personage) expressed in the text. Allusion presupposes the knowledge of such a fact on the part of the reader or listener, so no particular explanation is given (although this is sometimes really needed). Very often the interpretation of the fact or person alluded to is generalised or even symbolised. See the following examples: Hers was a forceful clarity and a colourful simplicity and a bold use of metaphor that Demosphenes would have envied. (Faulkner) (allusion to the widely-known ancient Greek orator). He felt as Balaam must gave felt when his ass broke into speech (Maugham) (allusion to the biblical parable of an ass that spoke the human language when its master, the heathen prophet Balaam, intended to punish it). In B. Shaw's play "Pygmalion", the following remark of Mr. Higgins " Eliza: you are an idiot. I waste the treasures of my Mi/tonic mind by spreading them before you alludes to the English poet of the 17"' century John Milton, the author of the poem "Paradise Lost"; apart from that, the words spreading the treasures of my mind before you contain an allusion to the biblical expression to cast pearls before swine {метать бисер перед сви¬ньями). In A. Christie's book ol'stories' The Labours of Hercules' the name of the famous detective Hercule Poirot is an allusion to the name of Hercules and the twelve heroic deeds (labours) of this hero of the ancient Greek myths.

Irony Irony, like the stylistic device of zeugma, is based on the simultaneous realisation of two opposite meanings: the permanent, "direct" meaning (the dictionary meaning) of words and their contextual (covert, implied) meaning. Usually the direct meaning in such cases expresses a positive evaluation of the situation, while the context contains the opposite, negative evaluation: How delightful — to find yourself in a foreign country without a penny in your pocket! Aren 't you a hero — running away from a mouse! I like a parliamentary debate, Particularly when it is not too late. (Byron) The Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria) was minded to stretch the arm of its Christian charity across the Atlantic and put republicanism down in the western hemisphere as well as in its own. (Goldwin Smith). I do not consult physicians, for I hope to die without their help. (W. Temple).

Euphemisms & Allegory and Personification

Euphemisms This term denotes the use of a different, more gentle or favourable name for an object or phenomenon so as to avoid undesirable or unpleasant associations. Thus, the verb to die may be replaced by euphemisms like to expire, to be no more, to join the majority, to begone, to depart; a madhouse may be called a lunatic asylum or a mental hospital; euphemisms for toilet, lavatory are ladies'(men's) room; rest-room; bathroom. Euphemistic expressions may have the structure of a sentence: China is a country where you often get different accounts of the same thing (= where many lies are told) (from Lord Salisbury's Speech). There are euphemisms replacing taboo-words (taboos), i.e. words forbidden in use in a community: The Prince of darkness or The Evil One (=the Devil); the kingdom of darkness or the place of no return (= Hell).

Allegory and Personification Allegory is a device by which the names of objects or characters of a story are used in a figurative sense, representing some more general things, good or bad qualities. This is often found in fables and parables. It is also a typical feature of proverbs, which contain generalizations (express some general moral truths): All is not gold that glitters {= impressive words or people are not always really so good as they seem); Every cloud has a silver lining {= even in bad situations we may find positive elements); There is no rose without a thorn (= there are always disadvantages in the choice that we make); Make the hay while the sun shines (= hurry to achieve your aim while there is a suitable situation). As a subtype of allegory we distinguish Personification, by which human qualities are ascribed to inanimate objects, phenomena or animals: 'No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet To chase the glowing Hours with flyingfeef. (Byron) Silent, like sorrowing children, the birds have ceased their song ...the dying day breathes out her last... and Night, upon her sombre throne, folds her black wings above the darkening world, and, from her phantom palace, lit by the pale stars, reigns in stillness. (Jerome). In the well-known poem: Twinkle, little star! How I wonder what you are!... a star is represented as if it were a living being whom the author addresses. In poetry, fables, etc., personification is often represented grammatically by the choice of masculine or feminine pronouns for the names of animals, inanimate objects or forces of nature. The pronoun He is used for the Sun, the Wind, for the names of any animals that act like human beings in the tale (The Cat who walked by himself), forstrong, active phenomena (Death, Ocean. River) or feelings (Fear, Love). The pronoun She is used for what is regarded as rather gentle (the Moon, Nature, Silence, Beauty, Hope, Mercy: cf. Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth, But Melancholy marked him for her own — Gray) or in some way woman-like (in Aesop's fable about The Crow and the Fox, the pronoun She is used for the Crow, whose behaviour is coquettish and light-minded, whereas He is used for the Fox).

Periphrasis +Antonomasia

Periphrasis This is a device by which a longer phrase is used instead of a shorter and plainer one; it is a case of circumlocution (a round¬about way of description), which is used in literary descriptions for greater expressiveness: The little boy has been deprived of what can never be replaced (Dickens) (= deprived of his mother); An addition to the little party now made its appearance (= another person came in). The notion of king may be poetically represented as the protector of earls; the victor lord; the giver of lands; a battle may be called a play of swords; a saddle = a battle-seat; a soldier = a shield-bearer, God = Our Lord, Almighty, Goodness, Heavens, the Skies. Periphrasis .may have a poetic colouring: a pensive warbler of the ruddy breast (= a bullfinch, снегирь: A. Pope); The sightless couriers of the air (= the winds: Shakespeare),or a humorous colouring: a disturber of the piano keys (= a pianist; O. Henry).

Antonomasia This device consists in the use of a proper name instead of a common name or vice versa. Thus, we may use a description instead of a person's name, creating a kind of nickname: Mister Know-all (a character of S. Maugham); Miss Toady, Miss Sharp (W.Thackeray); Mr. Murdstone (Ch.Dickens). On the other hand, a proper name may be used instead of a common name: He is the Napoleon of crime (= a genius in crime as great as Napoleon was in wars); You are a real Cicero (= a great orator, reminding of Cicero); [have a Rembrandt at home ( = a picture by Rembrandt); He looked at himself in the glass. Here, then, was a modern Hercules — very distinct from that unpleasant naked figure with plenty of muscles, brandishing a club. (A. Christie) (= a man who is like this hero of ancient Greek myths). As we can see, on the one hand, antonomasia is a subtype of periphrasis, on the other, it is a subtype of metonymy.

Oxymoron +Hyperbole and Litotes +Epithet

Oxymoron This is a device which combines, in one phrase, two words (usually: noun + adjective) whose meanings are opposite and incompatible: a living corpse; sweet sorrow; a nice rascal; awfully (terribly) nice; a deafening silence; a low skyscraper. Hyperbole and Litotes

These are stylistic devices aimed at intensification of meaning. Hyperbole denotes a deliberate extreme exaggeration of the quality of the object: He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face. (O. Henry); All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. (Shakespeare); a car as big as a house; the man-mountain ); a thousand pardons; I've told you a million times; He was scared to death; I'd give anything to see it. Litotes (understatement;is a device based on a peculiar use of negative constructions in the positive meaning, so that, on the face of it, the quality seems to be underestimated (diminished), but in fact it is shown as something very positive or intensified: Not bad (= very good); He is no coward (= very brave); It was no easy task (= very difficult); There are not a few people who think so ( = very many); I was not a little surprised (= very much surprised); It was done not without taste (= in very good taste).

Epithet This is a word or phrase containing an expressive characteristic of the object, based on some metaphor and thus creating an image: О dreamy, gloomy, friendly trees! (Trench) Note that in phrases like an iron (silver) spoon, the adjective is just a grammatical attribute to noun, not an epithet, as no figurative meaning is implied; on the other hand, in a man of iron will the adjective is already an epithet, as this is an expressive description, based on covert comparison (metaphor). An epithet may be used in the sentence as an attribute: a silvery laugh; a thrilling story/film; Alexander the Great; a cutting smile , or as an adverbial modifier: to smile cuttingly. It may also be expressed by a syntactic construction (a syntactic epithet): Just a ghost of a smile appeared on his face; she is a doll of a baby; a little man with a Say-nothing-to-me, or — I'll- contradict- you expression on his face. Fixed epithets are often found in folklore: my true love; a sweet heart; the green wood; a dark forest; brave cavaliers; merry old England.

Zeugma

Zeugma This is a stylistic device that plays upon two different meanings of the word — the direct and the figurative meanings, thus creating a pun. The effect comes from the use of a word in the same formal (grammatical) relations, but in different semantic relations with the surrounding words in the phrase or sentence, due to the simultaneous realization (in one text) of the literal and figurative meaning of a word:

A leopard changes his spots, as often as he goes from one spot to another (spot = 1). Dora plunged at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. (Shaw) She possessed two false teeth and a sympathetic heart. (O. Henry) She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief. (Dickens) At noon Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humor, put on kimono, airs, and water to boil for coffee. (O. Henry) The title of O. Wilde's comedy The importance of being Earnest plays upon the fact that the word earnest (= serious) and the male name Ernest sound in the same way: one of the female characters in the play wished to marry a man with the name of Ernest, as it seemed to her to guarantee his serious intentions. A similar effect may result from the decomposition of a set-phrase, when the direct and figurative meanings of the words within the set-phrase are realised at the same time: May's mother always stood on her gentility, and Dot's mother never stood on anything but her active little feet. (Dickens) ' When Bishop Berkley said: 'there is no matter' And proved it — it was no matter what he said'. (Byron) One of the characters of I . Carrol's book 'Alice in Wonderland' is called Mock Turtl; this name has been coined from the phrase "mock turtle soup". 30 One more example of zeugma (or decomposition of a set-phrase) is represented in the humorous story about two duellists who fired at each other and both missed, so when one of the seconds said, after the duel, 'Now, please, shake your hands!', the other answered 'There is no need for that. Their hands must have been shaking since morning'.

Metonymy

Metonymy Metonymy denotes a transference of meaning which is based on contiguity of notions, not on resemblance. In cases of metonymy, the name of one object is used instead of another, closely connected with it. This may include: 1. The name of a part instead of the name of a whole (synecdoche:

Washington and London (= USA and UK) agree on most issues; He was followed into the room by a pair of heavy boots (= by a man in heavy boots). In a similar way, the word crown (to fight for the crown) may denote "the royal power/the king"; the word colours in the phrase to defend the colours of a school denotes the organization itself. 2. The name of a container instead of the contents: He drank a whole glass of whiskey (= drank the liquid contained in a glass). This is such a frequent type of transference of meaning in the language system that in many cases (like the latter example), it is not perceived as a stylistic device. Sometimes, however, the stylistic use of this change of meaning can be still felt, and then it is perceived as a figure of speech: The whole town was out in the streets (= the people of the town). 3. The name of a characteristic feature of an object instead of the object: The massacre of the innocents (= children; this biblical phrase is related to the killing of Jewish male children by King Herod in Bethlehem). 4. The name of an instrument instead of an action or the doer of an action: All they that take the sword, shall perish with the sword (= war, fighting). Let us turn swords into ploughs (= Let us replace fighting by peaceful work.

Simile

Simile This is a comparison creating a vivid image due to the fact that the object with which we compare is well-known as an example of the quality in question. The characteristic itself may be named in the simile, e.g. when the conjunction "as" is used: (as) beautiful as a rose; stupid as an ass; stubborn as a mule; fresh as a rose; fat as a pig; white as snow; proud as a peacock; drunk as a lord. Such similes often turn into cliches. In some idiomatic similes the image is already impossible to distinguish: as dead as a doornail, as thick as thieves.

The characteristic on the basis of which the comparison is made, may only be implied, not named, as when the preposition "like" is used: to drink like a fish (= very much);

Oh, my love is like a red, red rose That's newly sprung in June. (Burns); Rise like lions after slumber, in unvanquishible number, Shake your chains to earth, like dew That in sleep had fallen on you. We are many, they are few. (Shelly).

Similes may contain no special connector expressing comparison, as in: She climbed with the quickness of a cat; He reminded me of a hungry cat. Comparative constructions are not regarded as simile if no image is created, viz., when the object with which something is compared, is not accepted as a generally known example of the quality: John skates as beautifully as Kate does; She is not so clever as her brother, John is very much like his brother. Note that, unlike a simile, a metaphor contains a covert (not expressed openly) comparison, which is already included in the figurative meaning of a word: cf. a metaphor in What an ass he «/with the simile He is stupid as an ass. Metaphors are usually more expressive and more emotionally coloured than similes just because they do not express the comparison openly.

Expressive Means of Language (Stylistic Devices)

Expressive Means of Language (Stylistic Devices) As expressive means, language uses various stylistic devices which make use either of the meaning or of the structure of language units STYLISTIC DEVICES MAKING USE OF THE MEANING OF LANGUAGE UNITS (FIGURES OF SPEECH) The term Figures of speech (фигуры речи, тропы, образ¬ные средства) is frequently used for stylistic devices that make use of a figurative meaning of the language elements and thus create a vivid image.

Metaphor Metaphor denotes a transference of meaning based on resemblance, in other words, on a cover comparison: He is not a man, he is just a machine; What an ass you are!; the childhood of mankind; the dogs of war, a film star. Not only objects can be compared in a metaphor, but also phenomena, actions or qualities: Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, andsome few to chewedanddigested(F. Bacon); pitiless cold; cruel heat; virgin soil; a treacherous calm. Metaphors may be simple, when expressed by a word or phrase (Man cannot live by bread alone = by things satisfying only his physical needs), and complex (prolonged, or sustained, сложная метафора), when a broader context is required to understand it, or when the metaphor includes more than one element of the text; cf. the metaphoric representation of a city as a powerful and dangerous machine in the example below:

The average New Yorker is caught in a machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless. If he resists, the machine will crush him to pieces. (W. Frank) ... the scene of man, A mighty maze, but not without a plan; A wild, where weeds and flowers promiscuous shoot; A garden tempting with forbidden fruit. ...(A. Pope) A trite metaphor (стершаяся метафора) is one that is overused in speech, so that it has lost its freshness of expression. Such metaphors often turn into idiomatic phrases (phraseological expressions) that are fixed in dictionaries: seeds of evil, a rooted prejudice, a flight of imagination, in the heat of argument, to burn with desire, to fish for compliments, to prick one's ears

Newspaper Speech

Newspaper Speech English newspaper writing dates from the 17"' century. First newspapers carried only news, without comments, as commenting was considered to be against the principles of journalism. By the 19lh century newspaper language was recognised as a particular variety of style, characterized by a specific communicative purpose and its own system of language means. The content of newspaper material is fairly diverse, it comprises news and commentary on the news, press reports and articles, advertisements and official announcements, as well as short stories and poems, crossword puzzles and other such like material for entertainment of the reader. Newspaper style includes a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means serving the purpose of informing, instructing, and, in addition, of entertaining the reader. As a result of this diversity of purposes, newspapers contain not only strictly informational, but also evaluative material — comments and views of the news-writer (esecially characteristic of editorials and feature articles). As the newspaper seeks to influence public opinion on various social, political or moral matters, its language frequently contains vocabulary with evaluative connotation, such as to allege (theperson who allegedly committed the crime), or to claim (the defendant claims to know nothing about it), which cast some doubt on what is stated further and make it clear to the reader that those are not yet affirmed facts. A similar idea is expressed by special grammar structures, e.g. The man is said to have taken part in the affair, or The chief of the police is quoted as saying... Evaluation can be included in the headlines of news items (Government going back on its own promises) and in the commentary on the news, in feature articles, in leading articles (editorials), where emotionally coloured vocabulary is widely employed. The characteristics mentioned are common to different genres of publicist style. Nevertheless, the informative content generally prevails in newspaper material as compared with purely publicist or oratory works. On the whole we may single out the following features typical of newspaper style: in vocabulary — the use of special political or economic terminology (constitutional, election, General Assembly of the UN, gross output, per capita production): the use of lofty, bookish vocabulary, including certain cliches (population, public opinion, a nation-wide crisis, crucial/pressing problems, representative voting), which may be based on metaphors and thus emotionally coloured: war hysteria, escalation of war, overwhelming majority, stormy applause/a storm of applause, captains of industry, pillars of society, the bulwark of civilization. frequent use of abbreviations — names of organizations, political movements, etc.: UN (United Nations Organization), NATO {North Atlantic Treaty Organization), EEC (European Economic Community), UK( The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), FO (Foreign Office), PM (Prime -minister), MP (member of Parliament), etc. the use of neologisms, since newspapers quickly react to any new trends in the development of society, technology, science and so on: sputnik, a teach-in (the form of campaigning through heated political discussions), black Americans/Afro-Americans (= Negroes), Latin Americans (emigrants from South America), front-lash (a vigorous anti-racist movement), stop-go politics (= indecisive policies), a shock announcement, to work flat out(= to work very hard), a frosty reception. in grammar — the use of complete simple sentences, of complex and compound sentences, often extended by a number of clauses: The Secretary to the Treasury said he had been asked what was meant by the statement in the Speech that the position of war pensioners would be kept under close review. On the other hand, in newspaper headlines we find elliptical sentences, with the finite verb omitted or replaced by a non-finite form, and the grammatical articles also often omitted: Price rise expected (=A rise in prices is expected); Witnesses silent in court (= The witnesses are silent during the court trial); Prime Minister on new tax (= What the Prime Minister said about the new tax).

Some Particular Genres of Publicist Style- The Essay

Some Particular Genres of Publicist Style The Essay This genre in English literature dates from the 16"' century, and its name is taken from the short "Essays" (= experiments, attempts) by the French writer Montaigne, which contained his thoughts on various subjects. An essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social or literary subjects, which preserves a clearly personal character and has no pretence to deep or strictly scientific treatment of the subject. It is rather a number of comments, without any definite conclusions. See an extract from Ben Johnson (16lh century): Language most shows a man; speak, thai I may see thee. It springs of the most retired and in most parts of us, and is the image of the parent of it, the mind. No glass renders a man's form or likeness so true, as his speech, and, as we consider feature and composition in a man, so words in language. Some men are tall and big, so some language is high and great. Then the words are chosen, the sound ample, the composition full, all grace, sinewy (жилистый) and strong. Some are little and dwarfs; so of speech, it is humble and low; the words are poor and flat; the members are periods thin and weak, without knitting or number. Nowadays an essay is usually a kind of feature article in a magazine or newspaper. It is characterized by clarity and brevity of expression, by the use of the first person singular, by expanded use of connecting words (to express clearly all the logical relations in the development of thought), and abundant use of emotionally coloured words, of metaphors and other figures of speech.

Publicist (Oratory) Style

Publicist (Oratory) Style This is a style used in public speeches and printed publicist works, which are addressed to a broad audience and devoted to important social or political events, public problems of cultural or moral character. Such communication requires clarity in the presentation of ideas, its aim is to convince the readers/listener of the truth of the ideas expressed, and at the same time to produce an emotional impact (impression) on the audience. Thus the main features of this style are clear logical argumentation and emotional appeal to the audience. In this way the publicist style has features in common not only with the style of official or scientific works, on the one hand, but also with some elements of emotionally coloured colloquial style, on the other hand. Indeed, in this case the author has no need to make his speech impersonal (as in scientific or official style) — on the contrary, he tries to approximate his text to lively communication, as though he were talking to people in direct contact. Accordingly, the publicist style is characterized by the use of logically connected syntactic structures in their full form, i.e. complete extended sentences connected by conjunctions clearly showing the relations expressed, but at the same time, an emotional impact is achieved by the use of emotionally coloured vocabulary, just as in belles-lettres style (the style of fiction works) and in colloquial style. Publicist (oratory) style requires eloquence (красноречие), and such works are often ornamented with stylistic devices and figures of speech (see Part 3). Some authors of publicist works may prefer verbosity (многословие), others — brevity of expression, often resembling epigrams. There are various genres in which the publicist style is employed, such as public speeches, essays, pamphlets, articles published in newspapers or magazines, radio and TV commentaries, etc. The oral variant of publicist style — the oratory style proper (which is used in speeches and mass media commentaries), is especially close to spoken language in its emotional aspect. It is aimed at logical and emotional persuasion of the audience. As there is direct contact with the audience, it allows the speaker to combine effects of written and spoken varieties of language. For example, the author can use direct address (the pronoun of the second person "You"), and often begins his speech with special formulas of address to the audience: Ladies and Gentlemen! My Lords', (in the House of Lords); Mr. Chairman: Highly esteemed members of the conference.'; or. in a less formal situation — Dear Friends; or, with a more passionate colouring — My friends/ As the speaker/author attempts to reach closer contact with the audience, he may use such devices as asking the audience questions: Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the government of himself. Can he, then, he trusted with the government of others? Or have we found angels in the forms of kings to govern him ? (Th. Jefferson) or making an appeal to the audience: Let us then, with courage and confidence, pursue our own federal and republican principles! (ibid.). On the other hand, as different from colloquial style, the vocabulary of speeches and printed publicist works is usually very elaborately chosen and remains mainly in the sphere of lofty (high-flown) style. See examples below: a) Friends and Fellow Citizens: Called upon to undertake the duties of the first executive office of our country, I avail myself of the presence of that portion of my fellow citizens which is here assembled, to express my grateful thanks for the favor with which they have been pleased to look toward me, to declare a sincere consciousness that the task is above my talents, and that I approach it with those anxious and awful presentiments which the greatness of the charge and the weakness of my powers so justly inspire (Th. Jefferson. First Inaugural Speech) b) The method which Mr. Burke takes to prove that the people of England had no such rights, and that such rights do not now exist in the nation ...is of the same marvellous and monstrous kind with what he has already said; for his arguments are, that the persons, or the generations of persons, in whom they did exist, are dead, and with them the right is dead also. (Th. Paine. Rights of Man) Like colloquial style, the publicist style is usually characterized by emotional colouring and connotations, but there is a difference. The emotional colouring of publicist style is lofty: it may be solemn (as in example a) above), or it may be ironic/sarcastic (as in example b)), but it cannot have the "lower" connotations (jocular, endearing, rude or vulgar, slangy) found in colloquial/familiar colloquial speech. The syntax of publicist style is often characterised by repetition of structures (syntactic parallelism) — a device used to rouse the audience emotionally: 'It is high time this people had recovered from the passions of war. It is high time that the people of the North and the South understood each other and adopted means to inspire confidence in each other (from a public speech made at the end of the Civil War in the USA). What do we see on the horizon? What forces are at work? Wither are we drifting? Under what mist of clouds does the future stand obscured? (from Lord Byron's speech in Parliament) Syntactic repetition may be combined with lexical repetition (periphrasis): Robert Burns exalted our race and the Scottish tongue. Before his time we had for a long period been scarcely recognised; we had been falling out of the recollection of the world ... Scotland had lapsed into obscurity ... Her existence was almost forgotten (all those different phrases simply repeat the idea "nobody knew us, Scots, before").

The Style of Scientific Works

The Style of Scientific Works The genre of scientific works exists for the most part within the bounds of the written form of language (scientific articles, monographs or textbooks), but it may also manifest itself in its oral form (in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at conferences, etc.); in the latter case this style already has some features of colloquial speech. The aim of scientific speech is to present precise information, therefore it requires the use of special terminology which does not admit of polysemy or of figurative meanings, of emotional connotations (all of which is typical of colloquial and publicist styles). The author of scientific works tends to sound impersonal, hence the use of the pronoun "WE" instead of "I", of impersonal constructions, of the Passive Voice (which allows the author not to mention himself or any other subjective participants of the events described). The syntax of scientific speech is characterized by the use of complete (non-elliptical) sentences (unlike the syntax of colloquial speech), the use of extended complex and compound sentences without omission of conjunctions, as these connectors enable the author to express the relations between the parts more precisely (as different from the asyndetic connection typical of colloquial speech); the use of bookish syntactic constructions, such as complexes with non-finite forms of the verb; the use of extended attributive phrases, often with a number of nouns used as attributes to the following head-noun (Noun + Noun construction). See some examples of grammar structures typical of scientific language: Noun + Noun constructions: the sea level; the time and space relativity theory; the World peace conference; a high level consensus; the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide emissions): fossil fuel burning; deforestation problems (= problems related to the disappearance of forests on the earth). 19 Passive Voice constructions: Water is not the sole variety of substance from which oxygen can be obtained'. Methane is produced by leaks from gas pipelines. Bookish syntactic structures: The compound type of predicate: These gases are easy to control but they are persistent once emitted (= // is easy to control these gases, but it is hard to stop them when they come out)'. Deforestation is probably even harder to change (= It is even harder to change the situation when forests begin to disappear). The use of abstract nouns, gerundial, participial or infinitive phrases and complexes instead of the much simpler clauses with conjunctions: Apart from this, controlling emissions of greenhouse gases would require huge increase in energy efficiency (= Besides, if we want to control the gases which come out when the air becomes warmer, we shall have to produce much more energy); Agreement to implement such huge projects would require overcoming differences between countries (= If we want to agree to carry out such big projects, we shall have to change the situation when every country is different from another); The measures suggested are worth considering/require careful consideration (= It is necessary to think about the measures that we have suggested); Our planet is known to have been hot once and to have grown cooler in the course of time (= We know that once it was hot and then grew cooler). Special emphatic constructions to lay a logical stress on some part of the sentence: It is not solely from water that oxygen is to be obtained (= we can get oxygen not only from water). It is on these terms that the UN would be prepared to intervene into the conflict (= The UN will intervene only on these terms).

The Formal (Lofty, Bookish) Style & The Style of Official or Business Documents

The Formal (Lofty, Bookish) Style A formal (lofty, bookish) style is required in situations of official or restrained relations between the interlocutors, who try to avoid any personal and emotional colouring or familiarity, and at the same time to achieve clarity of expression (to avoid any ambiguity and misunderstanding). This style is used in various genres of speech, such as in official (legal, diplomatic, ~? etc.) documents, scientific works, publicist works or public \ speeches, etc. The Style of Official or Business Documents Official (legal, diplomatic, etc.) and business documents are written in a formal, 'cold' or matter-of-fact style of speech, which requires the choice of a special kind of vocabulary, grammar forms and structures. Such documents often require the use of special formulas of politeness and cliches, e.g. I beg to inform you; I beg to move; I second the motion; the items on the agenda, the above-mentioned, hereinafter named; on behalf of; Dear Sir; We remain respectfully yours, etc. Official documents are frequently characterized by the use of abbreviations or conventional symbols. MP (Member of Parliament), Gvt (government), Ltd (company of limited liability), Co (company); ad (advertisement); AD (Anno Domini = since Christ's birth); ВС (before Christ's birth); USA; UK; $ (dollar); Lb. (pound), etc. Official or business documents may require special patterns; see the structure of a business letter below: Domby and Co. 24 South Street Manchester 7th February, 1985 (the address of the sender) Mr. John Smith 19 Green Street London (the address of the party addressed) Dear Sir, We beg to inform you of a plausible opportunity of concluding an agreement on the issue on the following terms ... Respectfully yours, Domby and Co. The syntax of official or business style is characterized by the frequent use of non-finite forms — gerund, participle, infinitive (Considering that...; in order to achieve cooperation in solving the problems), and complex structures with them, such as the Complex Object (We expect this to take place), Complex Subject (This is expected to take place), the Absolute Participial Construction (The conditions being violated, it appears necessary to state that...). The vocabulary is characterized by the use of special terminology {memorandum; pact; the high contracting parties; to ratify an agreement; extra-territorial status; plenipotential representative; proceedings, protocol, the principles laid down in the document, etc.) and generally by the choice of lofty (bookish) words and phrases: plausible (= possible); to inform (= to tell); to assist (to help), to cooperate (=to work together), to be determined/resolved (= to wish); the succeeding clauses of the agreement (= нижеследующие статьи договора), to reaffirm faith in fundamental principles; to establish the required conditions; the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law; to promote (= to develop) and secure (= to make stable) social progress; with the following objectives/ends (=for these purposes).